Human Resources Management and Job Design Essay

This has been the problem with also several blue chip companies. Are there other issues which leads to commitment and loyalty to stay on in companies? The organizations could not afford to lose key individuals for some matters related to job dissatisfaction and discontentment. In such a scenario â€Å"Organizational Behavior† becomes a very essential tool in shaping employee morale. Job Design becomes all the more important and is an avenue that could lead to overall job contentment. It could be made more enriching and appealing to the employees by incorporating suitable Human Resource and Behavioral concepts. The objective of this paper is to identify some of the state of the art and tested techniques in Human Resources Management that could make the job more enriching and interesting to the employees. It aims at â€Å"Quality of Work Life† where the emphasis is given to issues like Quality, Time, Commitment, Work Culture and Social Responsibility. WE have to act to ‘Realize Our Needs’. Access to technology helps in marching forward but people have to be told to contribute to develop to their full potential, utilize resources improve relationships and acquire knowledge. Duplication of efforts to gain increased productivity, continuous quality improvement and progress could be avoided. Sharing the resources between nations can do this. Importance should be given to self-sufficiency and efficiency, stimulating original thinking resulting in effectives of the system. Introduction Emphasis of Industrial Engineering with respect to Human Resource Management and Job Design are Ergonomics, Human Factors, Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Operations Research and Management. Experimental work in the field of Biomechanics, Human factors, Computer Integrated Manufacture, Process Control, Graphics, and Computation methods are done. Ergonomics and Human Factors includes biomechanics, man-machine systems, prevention of musculo-skeletal disorders, other industrial hygiene issues, and ergonomics and human factors issues in a aviation, space systems and rehabilitation. Manufacturing Systems Engineering includes computer-integrated manufacturing; the planning, design, and control of manufacturing systems; Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing; and the application of robotics, vision systems, and artificial intelligence in manufacturing. Operations Research includes deterministic and stochastic optimization; multi-criteria decision making; expert systems and artificial neural networks; modeling and analysis of system reliability; Total Quality Management; and the modeling, management, and simulation of manufacturing and service systems. Objective Aim of Human Resource Management to increase the awareness of the real power, to direct, to make decisions, to develop ethical systems, to enhance the lives of self & others and to understand that the systems should be made successful with active participation of all working partners. Process This can be achieved through the development of conceptual skills, entrepreneur skills, leadership skills, manageri al skills, technical skills and communicational skills. Focusing on effective leadership, efficient management process, productive motivation, economic manufacturing and service, required training requirement and of skills for excellence. By viewing the situation in the present perspective, by formulation of changing alternatives and by choosing the best change alternative. It can be dealt easily with each and every aspect of life with power, freedom and full self-expression. Areas of life are health, well-being, leisure, fun, relationships, career, family, plans for future, retirement, quality of life, living situation, home, religion, spirituality, finances, income, sex, self-confidence communication and enrollment. Ability to listen and be present, to take unreasonable actions, overcome fear of failure, and live an upset free life and think positively always with sense of joy & fulfillment and with unimpeachable integrity. Awareness of the real power is being present to what is happening now and being able to deal with full energy & commitment without any doubt or ambiguity in the mind in each and every aspect of our life. Organize To be organized keep things in the same place every time. Ask every one to do the same. Take them when required and place them back as soon as the work is over in the same order, plan in advance what all needs to be done; now, after 1hour, after 6 hours, after 10 hours, today, tomorrow, this week, next week, this month, next month, this year, next year, next five years and next ten years.

Positive Effects of Girls Playing Sports Essay

It is a saying that â€Å"Cleanliness is a part of faith†. Everybody can keep itself neat and clean and maintain his/hers health. But only by cleanliness health is not maintained properly. There is another thing, which is necessary for a fit body and a healthy mind. Sports/extra-curricular activities provide these factors and complete a man/woman. Sports provide people with fitness of body and activeness. Sports cannot be only cricket or football or any other recreational activities. Sports mean activities, which provide relaxation to the body and mind. People maintain their figure through running games as sports and provide relaxation to the mind by playing board games such as chess, scrabble, ludo, checkers and other mind-relaxing games. While many people love fighting sports such as boxing, judo, karate and wrestling. These sports provide flexibility and toughness to the body. While sports provide health and relaxation to the man, it has many benefits. All competitions and leagues are included in women sports. When women and girls were finally encouraged and devoted to this profession, their level to play in sports rose in the late 20th century. Title IX supported the efforts of women athletes in the US. As compared to previous generations women now have more skills, enthusiasm and knowledge to participate and dedicate their lives to this profession. Women athletes now have a strong work aim, motivation to encourage fresh athletes and a mentality to focus on the game. â€Å"In western modern history, few women competed in sports until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Women athletes were frowned upon by society. Due to partly women rights movement, this behavior began to change in many countries. Even now, women athletes or sportswoman are generally fewer in number as compared to men. The reasons for these maybe ill-fated societies and their conservative thoughts, which tend the women to remain in boundaries. Women are even encouraged when there is literacy. Some sports organizations encourage teenage girls to participate in sports and compete with other teams. This is done in high schools as sports day in which few girls participate and majority count is of boys. Schools encourage girls to be active and participate in sports, but wherever they reach maturity and tend to become successful sportswomen they are many times discouraged. This act generally refers to superiority of boys. In modern times women have had to fight for the right to be athletic competitors. Ancient Olympics did not allow women spectators to enter the game field or participate in the athletes. However, a separate women’s athletic event known as the Heraea Games was eventually developed†. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_sports) In olden days women were considered to sit at homes and dedicate their lives to home professions such as cooking, sewing and taking care of babies etc. Nowadays, in the modern era, where women have almost won the mankind race from the man in every field, they have also mastered in sports. Many women are famous in their sports like Stephie Graff (Germany), Maria Sharapova and Sania Mirza in tennis. The world’s famous athletic player Nadia is from Moscow. Women sports also tend them not to only stay at home but to enjoy social gatherings and avoid the marriages at what stage they want. Many conservative people think that girls should be married before they reach maturity. This makes small teenage girls pregnant in small ages and they could not look after themselves. Sports avoid these practices as a sportswoman has to look after her profession and she before popularity does not agrees to end her career. There are no negative aspects of women who start exercising when they are mature, are they tend to remain fit and fine at every age, if they do not take life stresses as major problems and began to exercise sensibly. However according to the American College of Sports Medicine, exercise causes women too have eating disorders and develop osteoporosis. This makes what is commonly known as ‘female athlete triad’. Healthy exercises however do not lead to the eating disorders and does not cause osteoporosis and other diseases. Reports suggest that by playing sports women sweat and this leads towards their healthy body. Comparing to exercising women, those who skip and jump can also maintain fitness but eventually they have fractures in their legs. Even when fit women take too distress for themselves they develop weak bones for their healthy and fit bodies. Teenage girls who do not participate in sports do not have an accurate figure, while the ones who participate in extra-curricular activities have accurate figures; healthy minds and they have big heights. Surveys suggest that short-heightened men or women can grow their heights at any age by joining sports and jumping or skipping. (http://www.cemcor.ubc.ca/articles/misc/exercise_positive_view.shtml) â€Å"In contrast to the negative concepts about exercise for women’s cycles, there are several ways in which exercising is positive for women’s hormones, health and bones. These ways include decreasing premenstrual symptoms, increasing bone density, controlling weight and preventing diabetes, preventing breast and uterus cancers, and decreasing the risks for heart attacks†.(http://www.cemcor.ubc.ca/articles/misc/exercise_positive_view.shtml)       Conclusion According to scholarly articles, the result is this that women should participate in recreational activities such as sports as through these activities they can control on their diet and their body type. Women who participate in these activities could curb and prevent diseases like breast cancer, diabetes and leg pains. In this era, women should have to compete with men in the mankind race and this could only be possible with a healthy body and a sharp mind which can only be obtained by activities like sports. References Women’s sports – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_sportshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_sports Retrieved February 17, 2007 A Positive View of Women’s Exercise, Menstrual Cycles and Ovulation http://www.cemcor.ubc.ca/articles/misc/exercise_positive_view.shtml Retrieved February 17, 2007   

A Definite Difference of Opinions Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

A Definite Difference of Opinions During the development of the young country of the United States of America, everyone had the ability to include their opinions on any subject. But many times, only a few voices were actually listened to. In this case Thomas Jefferson, a Republican, and Alexander Hamilton, a Federalist, were two of the most prominent people in the production of this government. Although disagreement was very common with these two, their contradictions definitely attributed to the development of America. During the first term of presidency Alexander Hamilton had the advantage over Jefferson since he was a great ally with the president George Washington. At this time Hamilton was chosen as the Secretary of Treasury, which was an important job. Hamilton created financial plans that would supposedly clear the debt of the United States. During one situation, Hamilton produced a deal with Jefferson and his Republican friends that moved the nations capitol to Philadelphia. But that was one of the very few agreements between the two. One very popular debate occurred soon after the nations capitol moved. It is referred to as the debate between a "broad" and a "strict" construction of the new Constitution. Hamilton came up with a bank proposal that would produce banks around the country. Hamiltons idea was to keep the current of commerce flowing, and to keep business leaders happy by building a bank capitol. Thomas Jefferson was in great opposition to this idea. He and his friends explained that they did not want a country fill with cities, mills, mines, and factories; they would much rather see the farming production prosper in this country. Jefferson and his colleagues had bent their ideas with the national and state debts, but in no way would they receive the bank proposal lying down. They complained that the Constitution did not give Congress power to build banks; therefore, they should not be permitted. Hamilton, on the hand, explained that the Constitution stated that the government would pr! oduce a proper way of managing money, which the bank was for. George Washington believed arguments by both Hamilton and Jefferson, but he decided to sign the bill. As a result, economy was greatly affected in Americas development. Another great disagreement between the two was the whole idea of foreign affairs. The Federalists, led by Hamilton, supposedly believed that they should have never broken from the great empire. In times of war they repeatedly showed favoritism to Great Britain, the supposed enemies. The Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison, favored the country of France and the common citizens of the country. They influenced the common people of France to overthrow the French Nobility. A third difference of opinion centered around life styles of the American people. Basically Jefferson despised the idea of a New York City kind of country, he believed it would bring crime and other consequences. Jefferson wanted a more of a Wisconsin type of country, where everyone owned their own land and had their own type of freedom. Hamilton and the Federalists had totally different beliefs, wanting cities and factories in the country. After the election of John Adams in 1796 differences between the ideas of Jefferson and Hamilton grew larger. The acts produced by the Federalist party deeply troubled Jefferson and the Republicans. Although a little harsh, the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798, produced a way for the Federalists to revolt against Republican opposition and to increase power for themselves. These acts did not permit anyone to criticize the government at all, through writing, or any other way. It also extended the time to become an American citizen, since the Federalists believed that most of the foreigners would become Republicans. This deeply troubled Jefferson and Madison, but they had to find a way to fight back for the Republicans. Jefferson reacted with the production of the Kentucky Resolutions, which permitted states the power to judge a bill or law, unconstitutional, or invalid. This allowed the states to control the laws that would circulate their area. This, and other reactions ! by the Republicans contradicted the acts produced by the Federalists and almost equalized power on both sides. As you can see, Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson argued about many subjects to

Violence in Community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Violence in Community - Essay Example The third need wold be the need for love and belongingness, followed by that of self-esteem and ego (Simmons, Irwin, & Drinnien, 1987). Last in this hierarchy described by Maslow would be self-actualization, which is only achieved after all the previous needs have been met. The need for security and safety hence comes around when the physiological needs are met to a certain degree. At this point, Maslow describes man as a safety-seeking mechanism, whose outlook in life and the world, both for the present and the future, is greatly influenced by this prominent need (Maslow, 1943, p.375). Given that the physiological needs have been met, the need for safety and security of a person in his own community is vital for an individual to then fulfill his love and belonging needs. Thus, when there is violence in a community, and a person is not confident of his own safety, then the actualization of the higher needs is hindered. Violence in a community especially that among youths can be lessened by implementing community health interventions that aims to reduce the prevalence of its causes such as alcoholism, drug addiction, the availability of guns, poverty, lack of proper education, and the list goes on. If these interventions are successful in their goals, an individual can then focus on achieving needs of love and belonging, as other needs tend to become non-existent as long as a prevailing need is not met (Maslow, 1943). Violence in the Community Violence has been prevalent since probably the beginning of time and has presented a big part in the history of the world. Every year, more than a million people die violence-related deaths, and a lot more endure physical, emotional, sexual, and psychological injuries from self-inflicted, interpersonal, and collective violence (Krug et al., 2002). Violence is "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation" as defined by the World Health Organization (Krug et al., 2002). The term intentional suggests that a person committing the act of violence is knowingly carries out this act and is conscious of the results of the act. There are many forms of violence. The World Health Organization has subdivided violence into three typologies: self-directed violence, interpersonal violence, and collective violence (Krug et al., 2002). However, for the purpose of this paper, focus will be given to the typology of interpersonal violence, which is defined by WHO as "violence between individuals, that is subdivided into family and intimate partner violence and community violence. The former category includes child maltreatment; intimate partner violence; and elder abuse, while the latter is broken down into acquaintance and stranger violence and includes youth violence; assault by strangers; violence related to property crimes; and violence in workplaces and other institutions." (Krug et al., 2002) Although the crime rate in America has already decreased over the past decades, the rates remain significantly high (Berman, Silverman, & Kurtines, 2000). In a study conducted by Berman, Silverman, and Kurtines, it has been revealed that in the children between first and second grade have already either been victims of violence (21%) or have been

Photographer presentation- Martin Parr PowerPoint Presentation

Photographer - Martin Parr - PowerPoint Presentation Example They clearly reflect on their environment. A good example is shown in his book ‘Signs of the Times: A Portrait of the Nations Tastes’. (1992). He involved pictures of peoples’ homes, and used quotes below the pictures from this book. He has compiled very many photo books, which have taken long time to compile (Parr, 2012, p.78). There are several things that have contributed to his success in the field of photography. Firstly, he always focuses on sets, but not individual images. According to him, none of his individual photos was the favorite. This is because he has ne never focused on individual images, but he thinks of big collections as projects or sets. In a recent interview, Martin Purr said that he stopped focusing on single photos to be able to capture the minds of many people in the internet. Secondly, Martin Purr always adds statements on his photographs about the society. In every picture taken by him, there is a very strong statement that reflects on the society. This makes the photos interesting, funny, and depressing. Of late, he has been able to interject his thoughts and ideas into the photographs. This allows him to express his views about the society and the world at large. This documentary photographer is always obsessive. He includes inspiration and encouragement quotes in the sets of photographs and photo books that he collects. These inspirations add more attention to the viewer especially in the internet. Martin Purr is now at the age of 60s and has not stepped down even one bit. He still fights for popularity and commercial shoots, and this makes him travel the world for the mobilization (Dewi, 2005, p.89). Images taken by Martin Purr are always familiar. In a recent interview he explained that he does not possess a studio. However, he has an office in London but he does not visit the office regularly. He enjoys working at home where he preserves his photo books and other photographic collections. As technology

Comparison of Music Genres Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Comparison of Music Genres - Essay Example There are a number of disparities between jazz music and classical music. However, there are also some similarities that exist in the two music genres. One common aspect of jazz and classical music is the use of musical beat and regular rhythm. In jazz, music drums play a constant a rhythmic groove which is usually 4/4 and stresses on the backbeat of 2 and 4. In classical music, there is also a steady rhythm which highlights the musical motions. The rhythm emphasizes the downbeat of one rhythmic count (Livingston). Another similarity that exists between the two music genre is the instrumentation. Jazz and classical music at times use common instruments. For instance, classical used saxophone from the 19th century and has modernized to a symphony orchestra. The saxophone is an implement that is mostly used in jazz music by the most famous jazz artists such as Sidney Bechet. Another significant similarity is the improvisation. Improvisation is one of the ways in which classical and jazz music has remained discrete in their respective approaches and attitudes. Improvisation is an essential part of jazz, in cases of small additions and variations to a melody or the entire improvised free solo. Similarly, in classic, there is some use of improvisation or aleatoric elements (Livingston). The differences between jazz and classical music are seen in the choice of the instrument, how the music is played and the style of the music. As much improvisation is in jazz and classical music, it also helps in distinguishing the two types of music.  Ã‚  

LTE measurement parameters analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

LTE measurement parameters analysis - Essay Example The development of the long-term evolution is said to be the natural upgrade of the receivers. This receiver uses the CDMA designs that were established in 2000 and the GSM/UMTS set-ups to transmit signals (Rumney, 2013, 17). The long-term evolution is currently marketed as the 4G wireless technology service; LTE is not enough to fulfill the technical requirements that are adopted by the 3G. These necessities were initially accompanied by the ITU-R systems in its progressive specification in IMT (Korowajczuk, 2011, 29). Due to pressure generated by the market and the tremendous advancement that are associated by HSPA and the long-term evolution to the inventive 3G technologies, the fourth generation LTE technology was developed by the ITU. The major aim for the development of the LTE was to increase the speed and capacity of the wireless data networks through the use of digital signal processing modulations and techniques that were developed in the beginning of the year 2000. Some of the key reason that caused the development of the LTE was to simplify and redesign the network architecture to the current IP based system. The IP systems have a reduced transfer capability as compared to the 3G structural design. LTE wireless edge is usually harmonious to the 2G and the 3g network technologies. The technology must be worked on a different wireless spectrum (Korowajczuk, 2011, 77). In the long-term evolution, the following parameters are used on the location signal. The first one is the conventional signal power indicator (RSSI).It is used in computing the normal amount of power received and observed by the OFDM symbols which have the reference symbols for the antenna port 0.port 0 measures the bandwidth over the N source blocks. The second parameter is the reference signal received power. This is a form of measurement that is used in parameter RSSI. The parameters are transmitted

French Wedding Traditions and Customs Speech or Presentation

French Wedding Traditions and Customs - Speech or Presentation Example As culture and identity are closely associated with each other, it is our responsibility to maintain and preserve our cultural identity for the new generation as well as for people outside our culture. Because, cultural heritage offers people a genuine window to look closely at the richness and grandeur of the past and present of a society or a community. This paper briefly addresses the cultural heritage of the French society and introduces particularly the French traditions and customs related to the wedding ceremonies of French people. When it comes to describing traditions and customs, a lot of speculation is based on the current trend of avoiding or neglecting these traditional views by today’s younger generation. However, that does not paint a sad picture. Some traditions and customs are still followed by the French people in their wedding styles. The paper also discusses briefly the different wedding ceremonies followed by the French communities, along with all the sign ificant aspects relating to the traditional French wedding. French wedding ceremonies: Wedding ceremonies have always been a fascination with the bride and groom taking vows of being faithful and loyal to each other for the rest of their lives. It has always been like a fairytale with the spouses being given special treatment like prince and his princess. French wedding ceremonies also speak of the same charisma that is as fascinating as any other wedding tradition. This further requires a deeper glance into the history of French weddings. When it comes to describing a traditional French wedding, its varied customs and traditions spell of myriad hues of love and romance. As the customs and traditions indicate the important aspects of marriage, the traditional aspects involve a number of things to be discussed briefly in the following sections. Wedding costume: A traditional French wedding is usually synonymous with love and romance as repeated above. Therefore, the wedding costume gets a lot of special attention. Moreover, the design of the wedding costume involves serious consideration of the traditional values. Starting with the Medieval and Renaissance periods, French wedding costumes were just the elaborate versions of contemporary dresses in the sense that they did not require any distinctive coloring. Usually, the bride’s best dress was transformed into her wedding dress adorned by jewelry, laces, ribbons, embroidery, beads, etc. The concept of the all-white wedding gown is relatively new in French tradition. Introduced by Ann of Brittany, daughter of Francis II in 1499, the all-white wedding gown started receiving popularity and acceptance only in 19th century. The elaborate styling of modern white wedding gown is attributed to Empress Eugenie, who wore it in her wedding to Napoleon III in 1853. The idea behind an all-white wedding gown is to symbolize the matrimonial alliance as a token of the bride’s purity and innocence. Now coming to the traditional customs related to the wedding attire, two mo st important concepts are – a) the bridal trousseau and b) the wedding armoire. The bridal trousseau is a bundle of linen cloth given to the baby girl by her parents. The trousseau is also known as the ‘hope chest’ that is given to the girl for her future wedding ceremony. Besides, the girl is gifted with clothes, jewelry or any other items that she would need after her wedding, by her family members and friends. Contemporary customs also include this but in a modified manner of the old custom. Today, the bride is presented with all the household necessities in a stone-carved box by her family just before the wedding. According to the French tradition, the wedding armoir

International Strategic Marketing Report based on case study Research Proposal

International Strategic Marketing Report based on case study - Research Proposal Example Other parks include the Disney Cruise line running business in Florida out of Port Canaveral as well as two hotels in addition to the Disneyland Park in California. The constituent generates management fees and royalties on revenues from Tokyo in Tokyo Disneyland as well as in France from Disneyland Paris. The former receives more than sixteen and a half million people every year. The Walt Disney Company also runs media networks with two subcategories namely; Cable Networks and Broadcasting. Among the broadcasting units the company owns and runs the ABC Television Network that ranks that behind CBS and NBC networks. Listed under the cable networks are Disney Channel., ESPN-branded cable networks, and Disney Channel International in addition to shaving major shares in Lifetime and E-Entertainment as well as start-up cable operations among them SoapNet and Too Disney. The mother company also has various consumer products on the market. In this case, Walt Disney Company provides licences for it characters to consumer manufacturers, publishers, and retailers across the globe. Through Disney Stores, the company takes in direct retail business where it produces magazines and books in Europe and in the entire United States. The company also produces other products associated with entertainment including film, computer software, audio software, and video besides those applied in the educational market. Owning the studio entertainment category enables the company to generate a broad range of television animation programs, movies, live stage plays some used in schools, as well as musical recordings. All these products come on the foothill of television distribution, home video, and theoretical Disney film. It creates a television library. The library entails much more apart from Touchstone, Walt Disney pictures, Miramax, and Buena. Scholars posit that strategic management is a function of management

Proposal Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Proposal - Term Paper Example Our people and years of experience in the market have made us an organization of choice. Our extensive network with major health service providers ensures that our customers receive comprehensive health care services. Access Mortgage Company can definitely take benefit from our extensive range of products and services. Besides we are also willing to offer the additional services of psychological counseling as well as substantive abuse rehabilitation with minimum costs. At a total cost of $125 per employee per month, Access Mortgage Company can enjoy both of these benefits besides getting the regular services of our company. Introduction Caring and providing for healthcare of the employees is one of the best investments organizations do in order to ensure that employees remain healthy and motivated. Psychological counseling as well as rehabilitation of the employees are some of the steps which can ensure that the employees are provided the requisite level of support by the organizatio n to remain productive and constructive not only for the organization but for the society as a whole. Psychological counseling as well as the providing help in rehabilitating the employees against substantive abuse is one of the key issues which an organization has to handle. Increasing pressure and stress level can really put a lot of pressure on the employees and can result into low productivity as well as irritating behavior. Offering professional help in such circumstances therefore can serve as one of the key steps towards ensuring the rehabilitation of the employee. United Health Group is one of the diversified health and well being company offering diversified range of services including insurance plans. United Health Group offers these services through its subsidiary with the name of UnitedHealthCare. UnitedHealthCare and Optium are two of the best services in the country offering advance level healthcare services including insurance plans to ensure that every American has a ccess to quality healthcare. In order to achieve this aim, we also partner with different organizations to offer custom made insurance plans which can cater to the different needs of the organization. This proposal will present details about our Company and what kind of products and services it can offer you to comprehensively offer your employees the option of psychological counseling and substantive abuse rehabilitation. History of the Company & Competitive Landscape UnitedHealthCare is part of United Health Group Inc, one of the leading and diversified groups offering health and well being related services across US. Established in 1977, UnitedHealthCare has evolved over the period of time and is now offering insurance plans to individuals as well as small and middle sized employers. Managed by approximately, 30,000 employees, company have been able to develop market for itself and have served as a cost effective alternative for individuals and firms to afford quality healthcare. (Hoovers) The overall competitive landscape suggests that the rising cost of healthcare has made it almost mandatory for Americans to go for medical and health

Education policies Essay Example for Free

Education policies Essay Education is so important in any given society. For this reason, it forms a major part of any government’s plans. The plans that any government wishes to implement as regards their education system is determined by existing policies. Factors which influence formulation of policies form the subject of this discussion. For orderly presentation, the essay is divided into three chapters namely the introduction, the main body and conclusion. The introduction gives definitions of key terms used in the essay as well as conceptual frame work, the main body outlines and discusses major factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving their independence and lastly the conclusion draws a summary of the essay. 1. 1 Statement of essay purpose This essay aims at discussing the factors which influenced education policies in African countries after their achievement of independence. The essay will outline these factors and later give a detailed discussion of each factor. 1. 2 Definitions of terms In order to make this discussion meaningful, it is imperative that definitions of key terms that are involved are done. The key terms involved in the discussion are education, policy and independence. The definitions of the terms are as given below Education. According to the United Nations Education, Scientific and Culture Organisation (1975:1), education is defined as â€Å"organised and sustained communication designed to bring about learning† Thus education in this context involves a lifelong process by which an individual is incorporated into the group and made capable of behaving in the ways expected by the society for an individual of a particular age, sex or status. Education can take place formally, non formally and informally. However, in this context the emphasis is on formal education. Policy  A policy is defined as a deliberate plan of action which is put in place to guide decisions and achieve intended outcomes. Policies differ from rules or laws. Rules or laws are established to compel or prohibit certain behaviours while policies guide actions towards desired goals. This discussion, however, focuses on education policies. Bartlett and Burton (2012:134), define an education policy as the â€Å"rafts of laws and initiatives that determine the shape and functioning of educational systems at both national and local levels. Therefore, education policies give direction to the functioning of an education system. Independence This is defined as the freedom from being governed or ruled by another country. African countries in this discussion acquired the freedom to rule themselves from colonial mast 1. 3 Conceptual Framework Blackmore (1999), states that there are three models of policy making namely popular participation, decree and delegation models. This discussion will refer to these three models in outlining and discussing the factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving their independence. These models are discussed in detail below. (a) Popular Participation Policy making model. (b) In this model, everybody is given an opportunity to contribute to the formulation of policies. People in African countries were given opportunities to make suggestions on changes to make to the education system. For example, Zambia’s educational reforms of 1977. (c) Decree Policy Making Model In this model, the head of state makes pronouncements on the direction to be followed in a given education system. (d) Delegation Policy Making Model This involves appointing a commission to review the education system of a given country. For example the Onide Commission was appointed to review the education system of Kenya in 1963. Policies are made with respect to the findings of the commission. CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 Main Body This chapter outlines and discusses the major factors that influenced education policies in African countries after achieving independence. These factors are as given and discussed below. Education for Economic Development The consideration given to education as an important vehicle for economic development is one of the factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving independence. Investment in formal education was considered as an essential precondition for economic growth. African countries learnt lessons from developed countries that a high basic platform of education was a catalyst to rapid economic development. There was a belief among developing countries that the modernisation, industrialisation and wealth of developed countries were the direct consequence of their educational systems. Coombs (1970) argues that during the 1960s education in developing countries was regarded as a sort of intellectual yeast which would ferment and transform pre industrial societies by promoting knowledge, skills and attitudes which were favourable to economic and social development. Therefore, education policies in African countries after the achievement of independence were directed at promoting education pro vision expansion in order to achieve meaningful development. In fact an argument is advanced by Anderson (1965), that analysis of evidence from major developed countries such as Britain, France, United States of America and Russia that in general terms, a thresh hold male literacy rate of 40 percent was required before there be any significant take off of economic development. To this end, African countries directed their policies on education after attaining independence towards increased access to education in order to reach the required thresh hold of literacy. Therefore, in the 1950s and 1960s, demand and plans for investment in formal education by African countries increased. Education was regarded to be a principal weapon in achieving economic growth. To this end rapid quantitative expansion of the education system became the order of the day in newly independent African countries. Man power Shortages. After attaining independence, African countries were confronted with shortage of manpower in various sectors of the economy. As a result of this scenario, they experienced economic stagnation. Man power shortages were heavily felt in technical and managerial fields. Thus, education policies in most African countries were directed towards resolving the man power shortages experienced. This situation was evident from what obtained in Kenya. As Eshiwani (1993:26), observes ‘’at independence in 1963, Kenya found herself with a high shortage of skilled manpower to run the economy. In order to solve this problem, a commission was appointed to advise the government on the formulation and interpretation of national educational policies. † Therefore, it can be stated that man power planning in newly independent countries of Africa gave a direction to the formulation of education policies. Consequently, the governments of newly independent countries of Africa saw it paramount to expand the education systems of their countries in order to produce more graduates from the education system that would fill the manpower gaps which were experienced in various sectors of the economy. Most technical and managerial jobs at independence in most African countries were occupied by foreigners. Therefore, the aim of most African governments was to decolonise the education systems, produce more output from secondary and higher education so that manpower to participate in national development could be realised. Fafunwa (1974), Contends that education development in African countries like Nigeria was treated as a national emergency for the reason of curbing manpower shortages in crucial areas of the economy. In order to meet the requirements of manpower in various sectors of the economy, the policies of African countries after independence were directed at increasing school enrolments, especially at the post primary level. Rapid expansion of secondary and higher education was considered as a pre requisite for sustainable economic growth. Enhancing education as a basic human right Newly independent African countries were confronted with a task of providing to every child their basic, essential right to education. The kind education that was to be provided was supposed to be relevant to the child in his or her African setting. For this reason, most newly African countries had massive capital and recurrent budgets towards the financing of primary education for all. The provision of education especially at elementary level to citizens of newly independent African countries was prompted by the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights in which education is enshrined as a basic human right. As Bishop (1989:1), postulates, â€Å"Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. †Therefore, from the foregoing, newly independent African countries were compelled to provide education especially primary education on the grounds of human justice and equity. The newly independent African countries were supposed to consider primary education as the birth right of every child. This was due to the fact that education was seen as an effective way to give all children regardless of sex or family background an equal start in life. Furthermore, the leadership of newly independent African countries considered education to be the great equaliser that would help to narrow the wide disparities which were apparent in conditions of living in rural and urban communities. Before the attainment of independence, education in most African countries was a preserve for the elite. In order to correct this, African leaders made radical changes to their education systems to make them more accommodative to everyone. As Carmody (1994:23), contends â€Å"As in most African countries, from the early days Africa’s leaders viewed education as a powerful, often the most powerful vehicle for social transformation. Thus, as the UNIP government assumed power, among its immediate priorities were the elimination of racial segregation in schools and expansion of education provision. Tuition and boarding fees were abolished. † A point was also made by Bishop (1989), which in the days of the 1950s and 1960s massive expansion of education provision was regarded as the best means available for rooting out old prejudices and socio economic injustices. Therefore, education was regarded as basic human right which everyone needed to enjoy as provided in the foregoing arguments. In the pursuit of providing universal primary education, newly African countries set for themselves benchmarks. For example, the Addis Ababa conference on the development of education in Africa held in 1961 recommended that primary education was to be universal, compulsory and free by 1980. The conference further recommended that secondary education was to be provided to 30 percent of the children who completed primary school. Similarly, the conference of Arab states which met in Tripoli in 1966 also set 1980 as the target date for achieving universal primary education. To this end, it can be argued that one of the factors that influenced the formulation of education policies of African countries after achieving independence was related to the consideration that education was a basic human right which every citizen of a given country was supposed to enjoy . Hence, massive investment in the provision of education was undertaken by African countries after attaining independence in order to promote the achievement of universal primary education. As Court and Kinyanjui (1978:14), comment on the provision of Universal Primary Education in Tanzania. â€Å"President Nyerere had the choice of expanding the number of classes at grades V to VII so that those children entering primary education received seven years of schooling instead of four†. It can be concluded from the foregoing statement that the decision was arrived at because it enabled finances to be spent on the provision of 7 years of education to one child which helped him or her to become a useful member of society. African countries aimed at improving the access to education by increasing the number of school places which was facilitated by expanding already existing schools as well as construction of new schools in different parts of their countries. Promotion of Modernisation. African countries formulated their education policies with respect to the purpose of attaining modernisation. In order to influence modernisation in their countries, there was massive investment in education. This was a result of the belief that schooling would assist in the inculcation of modern ideas and attitudes. Bishop (1989), postulate that evidence seemed to indicate that schooling influenced the development of modern traits and ideas. To this end, schooling had some impact on modernisation. This was manifestated in higher levels of modernity among urban people and lower modernity among rural people. Consequently, many African leaders in newly independent countries felt modernisation of attitudes and behaviours was an important pre requisite for their countries’ development. According to Carmody (1994), education should socialise a nation’s population into modern values, attitudes and personalities. For this reason there was more emphasis on the expansion of education systems in newly independent African countries in order to enhance the access levels. Increased access to education meant increased modernity levels within a given country. In studies which were conducted be Inkeles and Smith (1974), indicate that education was the single most variable for modernisation. The studies indicate that each year of schooling improved a person’s score on their modernity scale by about 2 points. Education was also very effective in the development of positive attitudes and values. For this reason, formulation of education policies in newly independent African countries was influenced by the idea of modernisation. Modernisation was to be attained by every citizen in the newly independent African countries through education. Ensuring Citizens’ Political Participation The citizens’ participation in political affairs of their countries could be seen as one of the major factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving independence. Political participation of citizens of a particular country was linked to the notion of modernisation. This was due to the fact that knowledge was regarded as power. For this reason, many political leaders of African drafted educational policies which were responsive to the promotion of political participation of citizens in nation matters. This was highly evident in the content of education which was offered to the citizens . Again this could only be realised through the wide spread of education in African countries which most leaders promoted through the expansion of the education system. Cowan (1965), stressed that any political principle which governed education policy in independent African countries was supposed to regard as a top priority the provision of an education that would establish the most vigorous form of self government and independence. Therefore, extending schooling to a larger population would make more people politically and socially conscious and more active in the process of nation building. Thus, if equal political rights were to be enjoyed by everyone then everyone ought to have at least an adequate primary school education to participate more fully in the political process of their country. Promotion of Social Equality and Removal of Divisions The attainment of social equality is among the major factors which influenced education policies in African countries after achieving independence. Education was regarded as an instrument of social equality which was critical in the upbringing of social responsibility. Therefore, education policies which were put in place by African countries after attainment of independence were directed towards the promotion of social equality within their countries. Consequently, more and more school places were created in most parts of African countries to bring about the issue of equality within their countries in the provision of education services. Equality in the provision of education was called for as it ensured that child was provided with varied and challenging opportunities for collective activities and corporate social services. Furthermore, Eshiwani (1993), points out that the promotion of social equality in the formulation of education policies in African countries after achieving independence helped young people to acquire positive attitudes of mutual respect which enabled them to live together in harmony and to make a positive contribution to the national life. This contribution to national life was not supposed to be extended to every part of the country, hence the need of social equality in the provision of education. Respect and Development of Cultural Heritage The formulation of education policies in African countries after achieving independence was influenced by the need for promoting respect and development of cultural heritage. Education policies were directed towards the promotion of respect, fostering and developing the rich cultures which African countries have. For this reason, policy formulation as regards this situation was clearly addressed in the content of education which African countries were to provide to their people. The content of education was adapted to the culture of the people in any particular African country. In support of this assertion, Eshiwani (1993), states that the commission which was assigned to review Kenya’s education system in 1963 recommended that Kenyan schools were to respect the cultural traditions of the people of the country, both as expressed in social institutions and relationships. Similarly, Damachi et al (1978), reports that education policies in African countries after attainment of independence were influenced by the need to enhance every aspect of human development which included the promotion of cultural heritage. Consequently, African countries were to state clearly their language of instruction in their education system both at lower and higher levels. This was done with the sole aim of promoting the preservation of cultural heritage and national unity. To this end the education policies which most African countries drafted after the attainment of independence were geared towards learners understanding of past and present cultural values and their valid place in contemporary society. Education for Self Reliance The education policies of African countries were influenced by the need for the curriculum offered to respond to the attainment of self reliance. Thus the recipients of such education were supposed to engage themselves in self employing activities. The curriculum of African countries emphasized practical subjects in order to ensure the acquisition of self reliance by learners. It was realised that the kind of education which was offered in some countries in Africa was too bookish and academic. The education system in most African countries separated manual work from learning. Thus theory was separated from practice. This situation further alienated young people from their societies. Therefore, education reforms in most African countries were inevitable so as reverse this trend. As Bishop (1989:116), reports â€Å"By the mid 1950s it was being argued once again that schooling should be reformed principally through curriculum reform to include more practical and vocational studies’’ Similarly, Carmody (1994), reports that Zambia’s First National Development Plan pointed to the need for increasingly relating secondary education to the needs of the country by diversifying the secondary school syllabus into technical and commercial fields and giving a new place to agriculture. Therefore, it can be pointed out that education policies in African countries were supposed to address the concept of self reliance. Academic schooling was to be placed side by side with technical and vocational training in African countries. Improvement of Education Efficiency The education policies of most African countries after achieving independence were influenced by the need of improving the efficiency of the education systems. In education systems of African countries, it was felt that there was no correlation between inputs and out puts as well as between costs and returns. Education policies were centred on the need of making the systems of education to be more efficient. That is, the education systems were supposed to achieve their output at the lowest cost and also get the greatest return for a given cost. According to Bishop (1989), most education systems in African countries after achieving independence were inefficient, particularly at secondary and higher levels. The inputs such as expenditure per student or teacher training did not seem to have the effects on test scores which educators anticipated. Therefore, education policies were designed in a manner that would make the education systems in newly independent African countries to be more efficient. Additionally, education in many African countries was dysfunctional. It relied heavily on rote learning and led to an inappropriate reverence for paper qualifications. Furthermore, most curricular in African countries were irrelevant to pupils’ future lives and created an imbalance with many school leavers unemployed. Consequently, African countries formulated policies which were aimed at addressing the challenges which were faced in education systems. Education as a means of fostering international consciousness Education policies in African countries were influenced by the need to foster international consciousness in learners. Education policies as complimented by the content of education provided to learners was supposed to ensure that positive attitudes towards other countries as well as the international community were upheld. This was emphasized because no country existed as an island. Each country depended on others for its prosperity. Therefore, it was essential that learners were provided with education that would instil international consciousness for the purpose of promoting cooperation among countries. CHAPTER THREE. 3. 0 CONCLUSION Education policies in African countries after their achievement of independence were influenced by a number of factors. Some of the major factors which influenced education policies in African countries included manpower shortages, recognition of education as a basic human right, consideration of education as a tool for development, modernisation, improving education efficiency, need for citizens’ political participation, and promotion of international consciousness among learners as well as self reliance. Changes in education policies were inevitable due to the fact that African countries experienced change in government. A change in government is associated with an ideological shift, thus aspects of the education system in a given country  will be in a continual state of reformation. Hence, changes occurred in education aspects such as content, teaching methodologies, assessment and structure. REFERENCES. Anderson, C. A (1974), Education and Development Re considered, Newyork: praeger Publishers. Bartlett, S and Burton, D (2012), Introduction to Education Studies, Los Angeles: Sage Publishers. Bishop, G (1989), Alternative Strategies for Education, London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Carmody, B (1994), The Evolution of Education in Zambia, Lusaka: Book World Publishers. Coombs, P. H (1970), The Need for a New Strategy of Education Development, Paris: UNESCO. Court, D and Kinyanjui, K, K (1978), Development Policy and Education Opportunity: The Experience of Tanzania and Kenya, Paris: Macmillan. Cowan, J. O (1965), Education and National Building in Africa, London: Macmillan Damachi, U. G, Routh, G and Abdel, R. A (1978), Development Paths in Africa and China, London and Basingstoke: Macmillan. Eshiwani, G. S (1993), Education in Kenya since Independence, Nairobi: East African Education Publishers Fafunwa, A. B (1974), History of Education in Nigeria, London: Macmillan Press. Inkeles, A and Smith, D (1974), Becoming Modern, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Economic control Essay Example for Free

Economic control Essay Traditionally the reasons of the rules and regulations were to control human relations in an effort to make the behaviors of other individuals known (Pennell, pp3). rules are also employed to provide other purposes, these includes punishing offenders, providing social economic control, banishing private retribution, deterring criminal acts and reflecting public opinions (Pennell, pp3). Conventionally prevention of crime was intended provide advice on defensive behaviors and security. On the other hand laws are supposed to be malleable and should serve as a tool of social engineering (Pennell, pp4). They are supposed to be transformed with arrival of new thoughts and societal changes. The human rights and needs of victims of crime are essential aspects of criminal justice systems, especially currently, as the issues of victims have emerged since 1970s. Since 1970s, legal and emotional reactions of the nation have changed dramatically and currently more attention is being paid on restorative justice. There are many activities that are involved in restorative justice (Pennell, pp6). In order to give an insight of the various forms that restorative justice is taking and the activities that are involved this paper will focus on practices, origin context and limitations of restorative justice (Pennell, pp6). Victims Rights The current legal codes in federal government evolved from the conventional codes and attempts to define and deal with criminal behaviors. The aim of the codes is to focus on the deviant behaviors of the criminals and they rarely focus on the victims and their needs. The primary focus of the law is to deter the criminal activities (Aldana-Pindell, pp45). Several decades ago within the federal government when reconciliation for victim offenders was being set restorative justice did not exist within the criminal justice system (Brown Bunnell, pp87). Restorative justice has evolved currently within the criminal justice system in recent years following philosophical writings of van ness and others. Various debates which have been held have facilitated the emergence of processes within the restorative justice such as impact panels, conferences, sentencing circle etc (Aldana-Pindell, pp45). Since 1970s several practices and programs have assisted to develop the restorative justice moments. Early practices for restorative justice were focusing on the moderated meetings involving the offenders and the victims (Aldana-Pindell, pp46). As time went by the meetings were expanded and included friends and family members from the two parties. The meetings also included professionals and other individuals who had access of public resources. In recent years the system has paid much attention on the participation and involvement of members of the community (Normandeau, pp34). In 1970s some practitioners and scholars believed that offenders are victims of social neglect, poor societies and racial, ethnic and gender discrimination. As a result the advocates of restorative justice focused to change the conditions in the prison, reduce incarceration use and eliminate prison and jails as institutions (Normandeau, pp34). In this regard there are some individuals who were seeking to make a caring society instead of prisons and jails that would address the issues of victimizers and victims (Brown Bunnell, pp92). The activists of caring communities brought the issue of interests of the victims in the criminal justice system in a progressive manner rather than focusing on the right of the victims (Meister, pp54). In 1970s and 1980s the population of people in the prisons in United States was becoming progressively overcrowded and contributed to the use and popularity of intermediary sanctions (Aldana-Pindell, pp47). However, during this time restorative justice and mediation of victim offenders were not common within the criminal justice systems as alternatives. The establishment of boards of societal justice and centers for neighborhood justice in the federal government reflected their wishing to achieve more justice and this was characterized by public participation and casualness (Aldana-Pindell, pp49). These were new forms of resolution of conflicts in the late 1970s and they showed a developing disenchantment which involved trial procedures of adjudication and finding facts in accordance to adherence to strict legal principles. On the other hand the systems in resolution of conflicts placed much importance on negotiation, agreements between the disputants and placed less importance on the role of legal professionals (Aldana-Pindell, pp49). In mid 1970s reconciliation programs in the United States were introduced for victim offenders. These programs were based on the principles of Mennonite that focuses on dialogue and exchange (Marshall, pp20). Reconciliation programs involved offenders and crime victims meetings after being sentenced and included impartial third party. Reconciliation programs for offenders and victims aimed at restoring good relationship that is supposed to exist between the parties. The proponents of these programs were focusing to establish a good working relationship and use of principles of religious institutions and also as an option to incarceration (Marshall, pp21). In the rate 1970s advocates and the victims increasingly focused on mediation rather than reconciliation programs for offenders and victims’ interactions. However, the model of the mediation program was similar to models of reconciliation program, although additional individuals affected by the differences would be involved in the meeting, especially when addressing serious crimes (Meister, pp57). Mediation programs for offenders and victims were developed in western part of Europe, Scandinavia and England in the end of 1970s and early 1980s, and were use primarily to handle justice cases for the youths. Since 1980s the programs have shown a significant growth in the United States and other nations (Marshall, pp22). Progressive voices and conservatives suggest that victims of crimes do not have the voice in the criminal justice system. In late 1970s and early 1980s activists of feminists and social scholars of legal doctrines paid more attention on making courts and law enforcement officers to be accountable to children and women who may be physically or sexually abused (Marshall, pp22). The groups that advocated for victims right focused on compensation for crime in the processes of courts, using formal voice and on safety of the society. In early 1980s Reagan organization released a report of task force on victims of crimes that facilitated the development of groups that advocated for the rights of the victims. Since 1990s there is a tremendous growth of alliances between groups that focuses on the reforms of criminal justice and victim support. This tremendous growth has been as a result of realizing the common interests among the offenders and victims based groups (Anwander, pp71). In 1980s New Zealand government started reassessing Waitangi treaty focusing on the implications of the relationship between the whites i. e. Pakeha and indigenous people the Maori. In 1986 a report that was prepared by ministers recommended for structural changes in the practices and policies of the government towards the indigenous people (Marshall, pp24). In 1989 the administration had great structural changes in the way matters regarding family welfare and justice for the youths was handled. Before introduction of these changes indigenous people were overrepresented in prisons and jails and decision making processes were dominated by the whites (Meister, pp58). These structural changes employed in youth justice can be used in various juvenile offenses, but mostly they are used in serious cases and minor cases solved trough diversions of police. Family welfare and youth justice programs are different from offenders and victim reconciliation and mediation programs since they involve more community members in the discussion of the offense, pay more attention on participation of the family and recognize more victimized individuals. Family welfare and youth justice programs also reduce the intervention of the state and changes the roles of professionals in problem solving (Marshall, pp26). Youth justice and family welfare programs were introduced first in Australia in late 1991 and formed part of law enforcement operations that focused on one jurisdiction. Conferences run by the police were also introduced in the capital city of Australia and later on the northern states (Meister, pp59). In late 1993 and early 1994, conferences for handling juvenile cases were introduced in the southern and western part of Australia and they were involving non professional police to run the conference. In Queensland and south wale conferences to handle juvenile cases, have been recently introduced and they are mostly employed in Queensland schools (Meister, pp59). Circles of sentencing were established in Canada in 1980s, and were the fist groups of the nation to respond to offenders (Marshall, pp26). The aim and objectives of circles of sentencing are resolution of conflicts, restoring harmony and order, and healing of offenders, victims and family (Anwander, pp73). Circles of sentencing involves processes of consensus and includes all the victims of crimes and families of the victims, their next of kin, and community members in order to respond to the behavior and formulate sanctions that addresses all the needs of those involved. Circles of sentencing are currently being used in United States and in Canada by non indigenous groups that include blacks in Minnesota. Since 1980s, there are other practices which have emerged and use the principles of restorative justice (Marshall, pp27). Compensation boards in Vermont involve the members of the community and design penalties for offenders of juvenile. These penalties involve service of the community and rarely involve offender and victim mediation. The meetings do not involve the victims (Anwander, pp76). Panels of victim impact have also been introduced by mothers and focuses on drunk driving. The panels give a room for the victims and the members of the family to give their suggestions about the impact of driving when drunkard to the offenders who have been ordered by the court to attend. However, these panels for victims are different from most of the processes of restorative justice, since they do not employ voluntary attendance (Marshall, pp29). On the other hand they have an important element of bringing contact of offenders and victims in the process, which lacks in traditional proceedings of criminal justice. These panels are employed extensively across the United States. On the other hand research and theories have contributed to the development of restorative justice. In 1970s scholars of social and legal doctrines developed several theories focusing on formal and informal justice. Theoretical and empirical studies of formal and indformal justice which have been conducted in industrialized countries and in less developed countries suggest that, it took less one decade to change optimism for pessimism. With emergence of theories and research disillusionment had already set in by 1990s (Marshall, pp30). In late 1970s and early 1980s there were arguments from the criminologists in Netherlands, Norway and from elsewhere to abolish prisons. During this time the activists paid more attention on decarceration and alternatives to jails and prisons. However, currently there are few individuals who would argue for complete abolition of prisons although few people argue for their minimal use (Marshall, pp31). In 1996 there was an international conference to address penal abolition held in New Zealand and supported resolutions and discussions to facilitate restorative justice. Scholars have also attempted to focus on the merits of informal methods that can be applied in social set ups to regulate order in the society (Marshall, pp31). This involves reintegrative shaming in response to a crime that may be integrative and not stigmatizing. These ideas have been employed in conferencing models such as in wagga, in Australia. Before the wagga conference these ideas were not included in youth justice and family welfare programs and they did not form part of many conference held across the globe. The united states are currently employing the wagga model, although there are some arguments on the issue of shame and whether it should be the central issue in processes of conferencing (Marshall, pp32).

The Role of External Auditor in Corporate Governance

The Role of External Auditor in Corporate Governance External Auditors check companys accounts and report to the company based on the accounts. Basically, the concern is how external auditors conduct these duties effectively. Legislations, such as The Companies Act 1965, have made great efforts to ensure external auditors conduct their duties and obligations effectively. The Code of Corporate Governance in 2001 and the amendment in 2007 have further enhanced the effectiveness of audit in the interests of stockholders and shareholders. In light of the recent scandals involving external auditors in the world, there is a growing concern for corporate governance globally as there is increased reliance by the stockholders and shareholders on external auditors. This study examines the role of external auditors in the corporate governance framework. The study then reviews the financial scandals involving auditors occurred in the world and investigate the role of external auditor in the collapse of the companies. Introduction Corporate governance is a central and dynamic aspect of business. It is very important for corporate success and social welfare. In the wake of Enron, HIH Insurance and other similar cases, countries around the world have reacted quickly by pre-examining similar events domestically. As a speedy response to these corporate failures, the USA issued the Sarbanes-Oxly Act in July 2002, and in UK, the Higgs Report and the Smith Report were published in January 2003 (Solomon, 2007). Nowadays corporate governance is a globally debated topic with many characteristics (Nobel, 1998). However, the concern is whether auditors play an important role in the framework of corporate governance. Corporate Governance Corporate governance is the relationship among various participants in determining the direction and performance of corporations. The main participants are the shareholders, the management and the board of directors. Corporate governance is the process whereby directors of a company are monitored and controlled. There are two areas considered to be fundamental to corporate governance, one is supervision and monitoring of management performance and the other is ensuring accountability of management to shareholders and other stakeholders (Marianne, 2009). Till now, probably the two most important basic elements of good corporate governance have been full disclosure and the presence of independent directors and auditors, who each has their own ways to confirm that the data provided by the corporation are true and fairly stated. The contents of full disclosure are listed out in regulatory demands and professional pronouncements, and companies are expected to fully comply. The independence of the outside director and external auditor means the directors and auditors will have to distance themselves considerably to assure shareholders that they have conducted their tasks (Bavly, 2004). Role of External Auditors in Corporate Governance External auditors play a key role in the corporate governance framework. They conduct one of the most important corporate governance checks that help to monitor managements activities. The audit of financial statement makes disclosures more reliable, thus increasing confidence in the companys transparency. The role of external auditors is to make sure that Board of Directors and the management are acting responsibly towards the shareholders investment interests. By keeping objectivity, the external auditors can add value to shareholders by ensuring that the companys internal controls are strong and effective. And by working with the audit committee and liaising with internal auditors, external auditors can help to facilitate a more effective oversight of the financial reporting process by the Board of Directors (Hassan, 2004). However, the audit expectations gap needs to be acknowledged, as the audit function can only do so much on the fraud. The external auditor can not be expected to find every fraud and error during an audit. In accordance with the Cadbury Report, it is important to know that the external auditors role is not to prepare the financial statements, nor to provide assurance that the data in the financial statements are correct, nor to guarantee that the company will continue as a going concern, but the external auditors have to state in the annual report that the financial statements show a true and fair view. The Cadbury Report highlighted that there was no doubt on whether there should be an audit but rather how the audit could be ensured to conduct effectively and objectively by the external auditors (Solomon, 2007). Auditor Independence External auditors are expected to be independent of the company and report on the company objectively. Actually, auditors can only play their role effectively if they are independent (Peel ODonnell, 1995). They have to conduct their tasks in the most independent and reliable manner to provide investing public with the level of assurance to make their decisions based on the financial statements. According to the Cadbury Report, auditor independence could be affected due to the close relationship between auditors and company managers and due to the auditors intention to develop a constructive relationship with their clients. There are a number of threats to auditor independence, one of which is to provide non-audit services since non-audit services are lucrative. Auditors can obtain the contracts for non-audit services only if they maintain a good relationship with the management. The Cadbury Report stressed that a balance is needed to be achieved in such way that external auditors will work with, not against, company management, but in doing so they need to serve shareholders. This is a difficult path. The easiest way to ensure this balance being attained is suggested to establish audit committees and develop effective accounting standards. The Cadbury Report recommended all companies to establish audit committees. Audit committees serve as representative of shareholder interests. They are not only responsible for monitoring financial reporting process to support good corporate governance, they are also considered to be able to ensure an appropriate relationship exists between the external auditor and the management whose financial statements are being audited (Hassan, 2004). The Smith Report issued in 2003 highlighted that the audit committee needs to be proactive and raise the concern with directors rather than brush them under the carpet. The Report also stressed that all members of audit committee should be independent non-executive directors. Companys annual reports should disclose detailed information on the role and responsibilities of their audit committee. Lessons from Financial Scandals 4.1 Collapse of Enron Enron, the energy trading company based on Texas is the first scandal shaking up the auditing profession. It has led to a crisis to the confidence on auditors and the reliability of financial reporting (Holm Laursen, 2007). The audit quality and the independence of external auditors were questioned. In this case, Enrons audit and accounting function were fraudulent. Arthur Andersen, the auditor of Enron, has been involved in Enrons fraudulent accounting and auditing. Failure of the audit function is one of the key factors contributing to the companys collapse. Enron created The Raptors, four special purpose entities (SPEs). SPEs are established in order that a company can form a joint venture with other interested parties to conduct a specific transaction. This transaction will not subject the other parties to the risks more generally associated with the companys operations. U.S Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAPP) allows companies to record the gains and losses of SPEs without reporting their assets and liabilities in certain instances. In this way, Enron avoided adding more than $1 billion debt to its balance sheet without consolidating certain SPEs (Jenkins, 2003). But the problems are, when the losses of these entities quickly rose into billions of dollars, these entities were brought into the core financial statements. It then became clear that Enron itself had great losses. The corporations stock price dropped sharply, and the company went into bankruptcy in December 2001 (Brown, 2005). Examples of Enrons devious accounting exist widely in the corporation. The company recorded profits, for example, from a joint venture with Blockbuster Video that was never materialized (The Economist, 7 February 2002). In 2002, Enron restated its accounts, which is actually a process that reduced reported profits by $600 million (The Economist, 6 December 2001). In fact, the process resulted in a cumulative profit decrease of $591 million and a rise in debt of $628 million for the financial statements from 1997 to 2000. The difference between the profit figures was mainly attributed to the earlier omission of three off-balance sheet entities. Such profit inflation enabled the company to raise its earnings per share (EPS). The company not only manipulated the accounting figures to inflate the earnings, but it also was found to remove substantial amounts of debt from its accounts by setting up a number of off-balance sheet entities. Such special purpose entities can be used to hide a companys liabilities from the balance sheet, in order to make the financial statements look much better than they really are (The Economist, 2 May 2002). It means substantial number of liabilities did not have to be disclosed on Enrons financial statements, because they were mainly attributed to another legal entity. All these issues raise the question, why did Enrons auditor allow this type of activity? This is because the conflicts of interest exist between the external auditor and the management. Conflicts of Interest Conflicts of interest are a frequent problem in the audit profession. Although independent appointment of external auditors by companys shareholders is regularly replaced by subjective appointment by the company management, the auditor is all too often appreciated to the companys senior management. Further, conflicts of interest arise from interactive functions of audit and consultancy. Arthur Andersen has been blamed to apply loose standards in their audits because of conflict of interest over the subatantial consulting fees collected from Enron. In 2000, Andersen collected $25 million for auditing Enrons books in addition to $27 million for consulting services. In 2001, Arthur Anderson earned US$55 million for provision of non-audit services (Brown, 2005). Although Arthur Andersen reported on the companys accounts, they did not report fraud to the shareholders. This is because the fraud was committed by the management. Kenneth Lay, the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) from Feb 1986 until Feb 2001, took home US$ 152 million although the company was facing a loss. If Andersen were to report, they probably will not be appointed in the following years or be engaged in non-audit services (Krishnan, L, 2009). Especially, close relationships are established over time between companies and their external auditors. It can again affect independent judgment and impact on the auditing function. In this case, there are regular exchanges of employees within Enron from Arthur Anderson. Such conflicts of interest affect the corporate governance function. Serious conflicts of interest have also arisen among members of Enrons internal audit committee, which causes the internal audit committee did not perform its functions of internal control and of checking the external auditing function. For example, Lord Wakeham, a member of the audit committee, was at the same time having a consulting contract with Enron (The Economist, 7February2002). This shows that people in responsible positions should have detected fraudulent activities if they were independent. Enrons board of directors was composed of a number of members who have been shown to be willing to conduct fraudulent activity. It is also because the non-executive directors were compromised by conflicts of interest. 4.2 Collapse of HIH Insurance In Australia, the collapse of HIH Insurance Ltd was observed as the beginning of the reflection into external auditors role. HIH is one of Australias biggest insurers, comprising several separate government-licensed insurance companies, including HIH Casualty General Insurance Ltd, FAI General Insurance Ltd, CIC Insurance Ltd and World Marine General Insurances Ltd. On 15 March 2001, HIH went into provisional liquidation with losses of A$ 800 million (Peursem, Zhou, Flood Buttimore, 2007). HIH is one of the largest corporate collapses in Australian history. Similar issues arise as in the Enron case. HIH is claimed to mislead investors by providing incorrect financial reports to the market and HIHs auditor, Arthur Andersen, may have played a part in its collapse. Andersen conducted the external audits for HIH from 1971 until its collapse in 2001. Their contribution to the failure of HIH is considered in the following sections: Audit Practices As part of audit process, auditors will conduct a risk assessment to determine the structure and plan of the audit. Andersen assessed the risk of HIH and deemed it a maximum risk client, however, the engagement team of Andersen had not prepared the risk management plan and therefore the senior management team at Anderson did not review and approve the plan (Peursem, Zhou, Flood Buttimore, 2007). At the end, the auditor simply drew the wrong conclusions. Andersen signed off HIHs annual report for the 30th June 2000 and stated that it was a going concern with net assets of $939 million. Nine months later, HIH collapsed with debts of $5.3 billion (Peursem, Zhou, Flood Buttimore, 2007). Andersen used HIH management reports and forecasts and did not obtain sufficient evidence to get the conclusions they did. The liquidator could not find the documentation on the reasons for considering HIH as a going concern. This implies that Anderson failed to produce sufficient working papers to prove that the audit actually is conducted. Auditor Independence Andersen had a close relationship with HIH. By the time of liquidation, three former Anderson partners who had conducted HIH financial audit work held positions on the HIH board of directors. This obvious lack of independence between the board of directors and the auditors indicated that the best interests of HIH may have not always be a priority. Andersons failure in producing adequate working papers or in obtaining adequate evidence to support their findings have serious concerns on the quality of the audit they did. A significant independence issue is also reflected in the form of Andersons payment to HIH Chairman, Geoffrey Cohen for consultancy fees. These fees totaled $190,887 in nine years and included the use of Andersons office and secretary. These fees were not disclosed to the remaining board members in the annual general meetings (Peursem, Zhou, Flood Buttimore, 2007). The close and complicated financial relationship between the auditors and HIH chairman raise further questions in this case. Finally, the threat to auditor independence is that Andersen provided both audit and non-audit services to HIH. It raises a question on how can an auditor provide an independent opinion on the financial statements when he may play a role in guiding the preparation of the statements? The Royal Commission in Australia, which investigates the collapse of HIH, has found that the largest corporate collapse in Australia was not due to fraud but the result of attempting to cover the cracks on the overpriced acquisition. Andersons role in it appeared to be substantial. Modern Approach to External Auditors Role in Corporate Governance External auditors now have to take a much stricter approach to their clients (Bourne, 1995). There is an increasing view to support that external auditors should take on a more proactive role (Baxt, 1970). The Companies Act has set the stipulation on appointment, eligibility, qualification, disqualification and removal of external auditors (Davies Prentice, 2003). The intention is to ensure that auditors are able to carry out audit in an impersonal, objective and professional way. It is also to ensure that auditors are independent of the company. The reason for such emphasis is to ensure the external auditors are not in a position of conflict of interests. When there is conflict of interest, disclosure must be made to shareholders and stakeholders. Alternatively, there should be prohibition to the provision of non-audit services to the company where they act as auditors. To ensure auditors are truly independent and not in a conflict of interest, auditors should be rotated every year. Thereafter there should be a gap of five years before the same auditors are appointed by the company. Conclusion External auditors have an essential role in corporate governance through their involvement and their examination of financial statements. The external auditors role in corporate governance is a fundamental complement to achieve the desired objective of corporate governance. Therefore, the duties and obligations of external auditors must be expanded for the rights and interests of shareholders and stakeholders. There must be a modern approach to the auditors role in the corporate governance framework.

Comparing Ursula K. LeGuin’s Forgiveness Day and Nicola Griffith’s Ammo

Comparing Ursula K. LeGuin’s Forgiveness Day and Nicola Griffith’s Ammonite   Ã‚  Ã‚   In Ammonite, Nicola Griffith tells the story of one woman’s encounter with and assimilation into the culture of an alien world.   Ursula K. LeGuin’s â€Å"Forgiveness Day† similarly recounts one woman’s experiences as she confronts an alien culture.   In both cases, these women, Solly in â€Å"Forgiveness Day† and Marghe in Ammonite, learn about themselves as their position shifts away from that of an outsider and they find their place in society.   Although there are similarities in the characters’ backgrounds, their journeys, and their quest for belonging, there are fundamental differences in the process the characters go through in order to find a place where they belong.   Specifically,   LeGuin and Griffith mirror one another in describing the causal relationship between accepting oneself and participating in a romantic partner relationship.   This difference is telling as it reflects the differing attitudes towa rds the role of romantic partnerships in one’s growth process as well as in society as a whole.   Ã‚  Ã‚   As these stories begin, both Marghe and Solly are striking in their lack of attachments to the outside world.   Moreover, they confident in their professional abilities and proud of their independence.   In their freedom, both are spiritual orphans.   Marghe’s mother is dead and she is not in contact with her father.   In addition, she has no real friends and is distrustful of her colleagues on Jeep.   Solly is also an orphan in a very real sense; she has spent most of her life in space, and the technical restrictions of travel mean that as she traveled she would skip â€Å"another half millennium in the process† (LeGuin 47).   Her parents, as well as anyone ... ...serve â€Å"with great distinction as a Stabile† (123).   Solly finds places to belong, and Teyeo finds he belongs at her side.   Marghe is only able to find a place and fall in love after she has truly come to know and understand herself.   She joins a family, helps to support it, and learns to belong.   Romantic love, instead of making her belong, becomes possible only after Marghe has taken significant steps towards finding her place rn the world.   Nonetheless, in both cases, the authors demonstrate their characters’ need for true human contact and companionship and their own belief that such contact is an important part of life.   To become whole, the outsider must come in.    Works Cited Griffith, Nicola.   Ammonite.   Toronto: Ballantine Books, 1992. LeGuin, Ursula K.   â€Å"Forgiveness Day.†Ã‚   Four Ways to Forgiveness.   New York: HarperPaperbacks, 1995.   Pp. 47-124.

A Suffering God :: Essays Papers

A Suffering God Most people in this world have an idea of who or what God is. Whether they believe in God or not, they have certain conceptions that they use to define God. Traditionally, due in large part to classical theism, people define God mostly by His omnipotence. A lot of people have an image of God being an all-powerful ruler over the entire universe. These ideas come out of a mindset that affirms the greatest being must be the one with all the power. They imagine a being that is so far above the world, that He cannot be affected by what humans do. They want to continually affirm that He is completely unchanged, unmoving, and compassionless. To uphold this belief denies a good portion of Scripture as well as liturgical tradition within the church. For example, Hosea 11 describes God’s compassion and concern growing for the Israelites in a way that assumes God’s changing emotions (Inbody 145). This power-based concept of God essentially leads to some of the biggest problems in accepting faith. For example, if God is all-powerful, why does he allow evil to exist in the world? Furthermore, if God is all-powerful, then how can humans or any creatures have real freedom (Placher xiii)? It seems impossible to answer these questions by denying that evil and freedom exist. It can be clearly seen and argued that bad things occur in this world, just as every person can understand they have freedom when they act. Classical theism puts an extreme emphasis on God’s omnipotence and seems to make God responsible for the pain and suffering in the world. As a result, God ends up getting the blame for the mistakes found in His creation. It becomes necessary, then, to propose a scheme in which God is not so powerful that He is incapable of relating and in which He also remains God. The best way to do this is to change the way one perceives God. This does not mean people are forced to abandon the biblical witness of God, but instead to come up with a better way to understand the Bible’s language concerning God. Too often people, especially Christians, jump to conclusions in defining God in terms of power. They overlook one of the main themes of the Bible that is summed up in 1 John 4:8: God is love. Once people understand that love is the key characteristic of God’s nature, it becomes much easier to produce meaningful conceptions of God.

wild flower :: essays research papers

Wild Flower†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ â€Å"But father I love him!† said Tallulah, which means running water, and ran out of the tepee. Tallulah ran and ran not seeing the way. Tears were coming from her big brown eyes, passing soft pink cheeks, falling to the ground. She knew that she will never see her father again. There was love in her heart for him however the other feeling took over. Tallulah fell on the ground where green soft grass welcomed her beautiful small body that was gasping for air. Silk long black as a wing of a raven, hair were all over the face trying to dry the tears that were not stopping. Now Tallulah felt free. Free to do whatever she wished however the only thing she wanted was his love. The love that she met six months ago in the woods, while collecting berries for her family. It was love at first sight. Tallulah remembered that day like it was yesterday. His big blue eyes showed unlimited skies and ocean waves. Red hair endlessly played games with the sun. The lips, color of red wild flowers, spoke sweet words that melted in the air. Light skin was soft and warm to touch covered big built body that brought Tallulah security and took fears away. His name was Brendan, Brendan Smith. Brendan was a soldier that came from Ireland with his father looking for better being. At his eighteen Brendan knew the rules of life. Even as a soldier it was hard for him to accept the war and deaths of many innocent people. Brendan got used to seeing Indian people moved by force from one place to the other. He put himself in their position and imagined what kind of suffering they are going through but it was not in his power to change anything, to stop the war. * * *   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Oh Lord, what a beautiful flower you grew on this earth,† said Brendan looking at Tallulah. She Looked at him and was about to run away but her legs did not listen. â€Å"Do not worry I would not heart you. Just tell me your name.† no answer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Fine, don’t say a word; just let me look at you. Let me look into your brown eyes. Oh, they are so pure, I think I am getting lost in them.† Tallulah smiled. â€Å"Your smile is full of joy and innocence,† Tallulah looked down and her cheeks became red.

Green Mountain Coffee Roasters and Keurig Coffee

How government political system and economy influence each other? There are many countries in a world, and each country has its specific government system, also different government systems leads to diverse economic results. Otherwise, the economic output shapes the certain government system as well. As a consequence, government system interacts with economic results, and vise versa. Such as the relationship between centrally controlled political system or decentralized political system and economic income. Next, more details information will be given and bring a discussion about how they influence each other.Through searching on the internet, political system is â€Å"a system of politics and government. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the views: who should have authority, how religious questions should be handled, and what the government’s influence on its people and economy should be. † (Almond, 2011) Different countries from all over the world owe their own specific political system and economic results.For example, China’s remarkable economic success rests on reforming political government system foundation. In article â€Å"Federalism, Chinese Style: The Political Basis for Economic Success in China†, it referred that the government political reform provides significant degree of available commitment to markets and lead to the successful economy in China. What’s more, a special type of institutionalized or organized decentralized is reflected by this reform, and author call â€Å"federalism, Chinese style. In addition, Montinola who is the author of this article claimed there are three consequences: at first, it helps to promote competition, not only just in product markets, but also among labour and foreign capital of local governments. And without any dou bt, the competition also lead new forms of enterprises, regulation, and economic relationships are promoted by government trying and learning. After that, it provides incentives for local governments to encourage local economic prosperity. At last, there are considerable amount of protection for local governments and enterprises which come from political intrusion by the central government. 2011). This article describes how the government political system impacts the economy output. On the one hand, China reform the political system depends on the national conditions, and take advantages of this system to develop economy and achieve successful goal. On the other hand, China already got wealthy benefits from the existing political system. Moreover, in article â€Å"US Political System Gets Downgraded, Failure to Deal with Economy the Reason†, Dayen said â€Å"To the extent that there’s any fallout from the political gridlock in Washington, it’s that the country cannot execute the simple, fundamental steps to improve economic performance. (Aug 3, 2011) And also talked about a Chinese rating agency did actually downgrade US debt all the way, which could resonate with their sovereign wealth funds. This agency appeared to not so much downgrade the credit rating as the political system. It discussed if there was not existing good and suitable government political system, and there is no way to develop economic as expect. In other words, instable and inadaptable political cannot help to further the development of economic outputs. Meanwhile, there is no doubt that if there is existing terrible economy, the new type of government system need to form.Government agencies influence the economy through a variety of policies all the time. â€Å"Political system has helped initiate new industries, cushion the effects of economic depression, create a sound economic infrastructure, and protect the living standards of the citizenry. † (n. d. ) Japa n is such a typical country. Japan through adjusting the relationship between government political system and economic income in order to set up the most suitable government and increase economy as much as possible. They focus on enterprise.In other words, Japan's economic development is primarily the product of private entrepreneurship. There is no doubt government make a significant contribution to nation's prosperity. In a word, the enterprise focus need the help of centrally controlled political system, because it can pay a lot more attention to develop their enterprise in order to promote their economy. There are advantages and disadvantages among different type of government political, both of them have opportunity to increase or decrease their national economy.However, it has great challenges to reconcile the centralized and decentralized systems. Most of time, centrally controlled is focus on specific area, decentralized controlled has diverging structure, the scope is much more abroad and wide than centrally controlling. But centrally control can get more attention. So chose the right system need depend on each country’s specific situation. In order to reach the economy goals, it is necessary to look for the right government political system to push its developing.Also under current system, government should consider how to achieve their economy target. Above all, no matter which government systems, such as centrally controlled political system and decentralized controlled political system, both of them could generate significant economic results, at the same time, the country should get wealthy benefit from a specific controlled political system. Reference Almond, G. A. , (June 25, 2011). Comparative Politics Today: A World View. Political System. Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Political_system Dayen, D. (August 3, 2011). US Political System Gets Downgraded, Failure to Deal With Economy the Reason. FDL. Retrieved from http://new s. firedoglake. com/ 2011/08/03/us-political-system-gets-downgraded-failure-to-deal-with-economy-the-reason/ Montinola, G. (June 13, 2011). Federalism, Chinese Style: The Political Basis for Economic Success in China. World Politics. Retrieved from http://journals. cambridge. org/action/displayAbstract? fromPage=online&aid=7607848 The role of government and business. (n. d. ). 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